ASSEMBLAGE OF NECTARIVOROUS BIRDS AND THEIR FLORAL RESOURCES IN AN ELFIN FOREST OF THE CENTRAL ANDES OF PERU
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21704/rea.v18i1.1302Palavras-chave:
montane forests, flowerpiercers, hummingbirds, ecological interactions, Huánuco.Resumo
Nectarivorous birds (hummingbirds, flowerpiercers, and conebills) and their floral resources in an elfin forest of the central Andes of Peru (Unchog, Carpish Mountains) are described. This forest is well-known for its concentration of endemic species, mainly birds. We recorded the nectarivorous birds, vascular plants and the interactions among them between 2011-2014. The birds were recorded by direct observations and mist nets. Plants were evaluated with Gentry plots and occasional collection. A total of 26 nectarivorous bird species have been reported in this forest, however from our observations we detected from this assemblage 17 bird species that feed in plants’ nectar. A total of 27 plant species were visited by the birds. The nectarivorous birds were hummingbirds (Trochilidae, 12 species), flowerpiercers (Thraupidae, 4 species) and a conebill (Thraupidae: 1 specie). The plants were from 16 families and 14 orders. One species of hummingbird, Metallura theresiae, is endemic to Peru. On plants, Greigia macbrideana, Puya pseudoeryngioides, Centropogon isabellinus, Miconia alpina and Brachyotum lutescens are endemic to Peru. We comment on the species reported in previous expeditions and in the current checklists. Since this forest is important for its large number of endemic species, we comment on its current threats and the importance of accounting for ecological interactions to conserve montane forests.Downloads
Referências
Abrahamczyk S. & Kessler M. 2015. Morphological and behavioural adaptations to feed on nectar: how feeding ecology determines the diversity and composition of hummingbird assemblages. Journal of Ornithology, 156(2): 333-347. DOI: 10.1007/s10336-014-1146-5.
Abrahamczyk S., Souto-Vilaros D. & Renner S.S. 2014. Escape from extreme specialization: passionflowers, bats and the sword-billed hummingbird. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 281. DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.0888.
Arbelaez-Cortes E. & Marin-Gomez O.H. 2012. The composition of mixed-species bird flocks in Alto Quindio, Colombia. Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 124: 572-580. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1676/11-132.1.
Arroyo M.T.K. & Raven P.H. 1975. Evolution of subdioecy in morphologically gynodioecious species of Fuchsia sect encliandra (Onagraceae). Evolution, 29: 500-511. DOI: 10.2307/2407262.
Arroyo M.T.K., Primack R. & Armesto J. 1982. Community Studies in Pollination Ecology in the High Temperate Andes of Central Chile. 1. Pollination Mechanisms and Altitudinal Variation. American Journal of Botany, 69: 82-97. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00983305.
Ashton P.S. 2003. Floristic zonation of tree communities on wet tropical mountains revisited. Perspectives in Plant Ecology Evolution and Systematics, 6: 87-104. DOI: 10.1078/1433-8319-00044.
Atsatt P.R. & Rundel P.W. 1982. Pollinator maintenance vs fruit production - partitioned reproductive effort in subdioecious Fuchsia lycioides. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 69: 199-208. DOI: 10.2307/2398790.
Avibase. 2003. Avibase - The World Bird Database. URI: https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/.
Bascompte J., Jordano P., Melián C.J. & Olesen J.M. 2003. The nested assembly of plant-animal mutualistic networks. Proceedings Natural Academy of Sciences USA, 100: 9383-9387.
Bawa K.S. 1990. Plant-pollinator interactions in tropical rain forests. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 21: 399-422. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.es.21.110190.002151.
Becker C.D., Loughin T.M. & Santander T. 2008. Identifying forest-obligate birds in tropical moist cloud forest of Andean Ecuador. Journal of Field Ornithology, 79: 229-244. DOI: 10.1111/j.1557-9263.2008.00184.x.
Beltran H. & Salinas I. 2010. The vascular flora and vegetation of the Carpish Humid Montane Forests (Huánuco - Peru). Arnaldoa 17(1): 107-130.
Benevides C.R., Evans D.M. & Gaglianone M.C. 2013. Comparing the Structure and Robustness of Passifloraceae - Floral Visitor and True Pollinator Networks in a Lowland Atlantic Forest. Sociobiology, 60(3): 295-305. http://periodicos.uefs.br/index.php/sociobiology/article/view/188.
Bennett J.M., Clarke R.H., Thomson J.R. & Mac Nally R. 2014. Variation in abundance of nectarivorous birds: does a competitive despot interfere with flower tracking? Journal of Animal Ecology, 83(6): 1531-1541. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12245.
Berry P. 1985. The systematics of the apetalous Fuchsias of South-America, Fuchsia sect hemsleyella (Onagraceae). Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 72: 213-251. DOI: 10.2307/2399177.
Bibby C., Burguess E., Hill D. & Mustoe S. 2000. Bird Census Techniques. Second Edition. Academic Press. United Kingdom.
Birdlife International & Conservation International. 2005. Áreas Importantes para la Conservación de las Aves en los Andes Tropicales: sitios prioritarios para la conservación de la biodiversidad. Quito: BirdLife International. (BirdLife Conservation Series Nº 14).
Blake E.R. & Hocking P. 1974. Two new species of tanager from Peru. The Wilson Bulletin, 86(4): 321-324. https://sora.unm.edu/node/129111.
Blake J.G. & Loiselle B.A. 2000. Diversity of birds along an elevational gradient in the Cordillera Central, Costa Rica. Auk, 117(3): 663-686. https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v117n03/p00663-p00686.pdf.
Boyle W.A., Conway C.J. & Bronstein J.L. 2011. Why do some, but not all, tropical birds migrate? A comparative study of diet breadth and fruit preference. Evolutionary Ecology, 25(1): 219-236. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10682-010-9403-4.
Brack A. & Mendiola C. 2000. Ecologia del Peru. Editorial Bruño. Lima. Peru.
Brako L. & Zarucchi J. 1993. Catálogo de las Angiospermas y Gimnospermas del Perú. Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden. 45: 763-867.
Caceres Y., Lambda L.D. & Rada F. 2014. Shrubs as foundation species in a high tropical alpine ecosystem: a multi-scale analysis of plant spatial interactions. Plant Ecology and Diversity, 8(2): 147-161. DOI: dx.doi.org/10.1080/17550874.2014.960173.
CDC-UNALM (Centro de Datos para la Conservación – Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina) & TNC (The Nature Conservancy). 2006. Planificación para la Conservación Ecoregional de las Yungas Peruanas: Conservando la Diversidad Natural de la Selva Alta del Perú. Informe Final. Lima, Perú.
Córdova Alvarez M.C. & Fajardo Alvarado P.C. 2018. Efectos de la disponibilidad de Oreocallis grandiflora (Lam.) R. Br. (Proteaceae) en las redes de interacción de polinización de colibríes en matorrales montano andinos al sur del Ecuador. Tesis para título de Biólogo. Universidad del Azuay. Ecuador.
Cronk Q. & Ojeda I. 2008. Bird-pollinated flowers in an evolutionary and molecular context. Journal of Experimental Botany, 59(4): 715-727. DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern009.
Dormann C.F., Gruber B & Fründ J. 2008. Introducing the bipartite package: Analysing Ecological Networks. R News, 8(2): 8-11.
Dourojeanni M., Barandarian A. & Dourojeanni D. 2010. Amazonía peruana en 2021. Explotación de recursos naturales e infraestructuras: ¿Qué está pasando? ¿Qué es lo que significan para el futuro? Bois et forêts des tropiques, 305(3): 77-82.
http://bft.cirad.fr/cd/BFT_305_77-82.pdf.
eBird. 2015. eBird: An online database of bird distribution and abundance. eBird, Ithaca, New York. http://www.ebird.org.
Ferreyra R. 1950. Informe botánico de la exploración científica al valle del Huallaga. In: Organismo Coordinador de la Hilea Amazónica Peruana. Informe sobre el Huallaga. 177-217. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. Lima.
Fjeldsa J., Alvarez M.D., Lazcano J.M. & Leon B. 2005. Illicit crops and armed conflict as constraints on biodiversity conservation in the Andes region. Ambio, 34(3): 205-211. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-34.3.205.
Fjeldsa J., Lambin E. & Mertens B. 1999. Correlation between endemism and local ecoclimatic stability documented by comparing Andean bird distributions and remotely sensed land surface data. Ecography, 22(1): 63-78. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0587.1999.tb00455.x.
Franke I., Mattos J., Salinas L., Mendoza C. & Zambrano S. 2005. Areas importantes para la conservacion de las aves en Perú. In: Boyla K. & Estrada A. (eds.). Areas Importantes Para la Conservación de las Aves en los Andes Tropicales. 471-619. Birdlife International. Quito, Ecuador.
Garcia-Moreno J., Arctander P. & Fjeldsa J. 1999. Strong diversification at the treeline among Metallura hummingbirds. Auk, 116(3): 702-711. https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v116n03/p0702-p0711.pdf.
Gareca E.E., Breyne P., Vandepitte K., Cahill J.R.A., Fernandez M. & Honnay O. 2013. Genetic diversity of Andean Polylepis (Rosaceae) woodlands and inferences regarding their fragmentation history. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 172(4): 544-554. DOI: 10.1111/boj.12055.
Gentry A.H. 1982. Patterns of neotropical plant diversity. In: Hecht M.K., Wallace B., Prance G.T. (eds) Evolutionary Biology. Springer. Boston, MA. http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-6968-8_1.
Gentry A.H. 1993. A Field Guide to Woody Plants of Northwest South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru). Conservation International, Washington, DC.
Gonzalez O. & Loiselle B. 2016. Species interactions in an Andean bird-flowering plant network: phenology is more important than abundance or morphology. PeerJ, 4: e2789. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2789.
Gonzalez O. & Wethington S. 2014. Observaciones de los colibries y sus recursos de néctar en el bosque nublado de la Carretera Manu, Perú. The Biologist (Lima), 12(1): 109-115. URI: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=4755704.
Gonzalez O. 2008. Aves de la Selva Central Peruana: Levantamiento de información ornitológica del Parque Nacional Yanachaga-Chemillen. Technical Report submitted to the Office of Natural Protected Areas, INRENA. PROFONANPE. Lima, Peru. DOI:
13140/RG.2.1.3137.3686.
Gonzalez O. 2015. Bird-flowering plant networks in Andean montane forests. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Florida.
Gonzalez O. 2016. Nectarivorous Bird Plant Visitation Networks in the Andes. Figshare. https://figshare.com/s/3903e803bedc61aeee81.
Goodspeed T.H. & Stork H.E. 1955. The University of California Botanical Garden expeditions to the Andes (1935–1952): With observations on the phytogeography of Peru. Univ.Calif. Publ. Bot., 28(3): 79-142.
Guenter S., Gonzalez P., Alvarez G., Aguirre N., Palomeque X., Haubrich F. & Weber M. 2009. Determinants for successful reforestation of abandoned pastures in the Andes: Soil conditions and vegetation cover. Forest Ecology and Management, 258(2): 81-91. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2009.03.042.
Guevara E.A., Valarezo J.C., Onofa A. & Cupueran F. 2011. Mixed-species flock composition in a northwestern Ecuadorian cloud forest. Ornitologia Neotropical, 22(3): 379-386. https://sora.unm.edu/node/133246.
Gutiérrez A. & Rojas S. 2001. Dinámica anual de la interacción colibrí-flor en ecosistemas altoandinos del volcán Galeras, sur de Colombia. Tesis de grado, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia.
Gutierrez A., Rojas-Nossa S.V. & Stiles F.G. 2004. Dinámica anual de la interacción colibrí-flor en ecosistemas altoandinos. Ornitologia Neotropical, 15 (Suppl.): 205-213.
https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/on/v015s/p0205-p0214.pdf.
Gutierrez-Zamora A. 2008. Ecological interactions and structure of a high Andean community of hummingbirds and flowers in the eastern Andes of Colombia. Ornitologia Colombiana, 7: 17-42. http://asociacioncolombianadeornitologia.org/wp-content/uploads/revista/oc7/gutierrez.pdf.
Heindl M. & Schuchmann K.L. 1998. Biogeography, geographical variation and taxonomy of the Andean hummingbird genus Metallura GOULD, 1847. Journal of Ornithology, 139: 425-473.
Herzog S. & Kattan G. 2011. Patterns of Diversity and Endemism in the Birds of the Tropical Andes. In: Herzog S.K., Martínez R., Jørgensen P.M. & Tiessen H. (eds.). Climate Change and Biodiversity in the Tropical Andes. 245-259. MacArthur Foundation, Interamerican Institute for Global Change Research and Scope. New York. USA.
Hesse M.V. 2010. Las aves del Santuario Nacional Tabaconas Namballe. In: Mena Alvarez J.L. & Valdivia G. (eds.) Conociendo el Santuario Nacional Tabaconas Namballe. 43-50. WWF, Lima.
Hobson K.A., Wassenaar L.I., Mila B., Lovette I., Dingle C. & Smith T.B. 2003. Stable isotopes as indicators of altitudinal distributions and movements in an Ecuadorean hummingbird community. Oecologia, 136(2): 302-308. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00442-003-1271-y.
Hornung-Leoni C.T., Gonzalez-Gomez P.L. & Troncoso A.J. 2013. Morphology, nectar characteristics and avian pollinators in five Andean Puya species (Bromeliaceae). Acta Oecologica (International Journal of Ecology), 51: 54-61. DOI:10.1016/j.actao.2013.05.010.
IPNI. [n.y.]. The International Plant Names Index. Kew Royal Botanic Gardens. Kew, UK. URI: https://www.ipni.org/.
Jordano P., Vázquez D. & Bascompte J. 2009. Redes complejas de interacciones mutualistas planta-animal. In: Medel R., Aizen M. & Zamora R. (eds.). Ecología y evolución de las interacciones planta-animal: conceptos y aplicaciones. 17-41. Editorial Universitaria. Santiago de Chile. Chile.
Kessler M. & Kromer T. 2000. Patterns and ecological correlates of pollination modes among bromeliad communities of Andean forests in Bolivia. Plant Biology, 2(6): 659-669. DOI: 10.1055/s-2000-16642.
Kromer T., Kessler M. & Herzog S.K. 2006. Distribution and flowering ecology of bromeliads along two climatically contrasting elevational transects in the Bolivian Andes. Biotropica, 38: 183-195. DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2006.00124.x.
León B. 2006. Melastomataceas endémicas del Perú. Revista Peruana de Biología, Número especial (El Libro rojo de las plantas endémicas del Perú), 13(2): 428S-452S. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15381/rpb.v13i2.1879http://www.scielo.org.pe/scielo.php?pid=S1727-99332006000200075&script=sci_arttext.
León B., Sagastegui A, Sanchez I. & Zapata M. 2006. Bromeliaceae endémicas del Perú. Revista Peruana de Biología, Número especial (El Libro rojo de las plantas endémicas del Perú), 13(2): 708S-737S. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15381/rpb.v13i2.1941 .
Levey D. & Stiles F. 1992. Evolutionary Precursors of Long-Distance Migration - Resource Availability and Movement Patterns in Neotropical Landbirds. The American Naturalist, 140(3): 447-476. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2462776.
Lloyd H. 2008. Abundance and patterns of rarity of Polylepis birds in the Cordillera Vilcanota, southern Perú: implications for habitat management strategies. Bird Conservation International, 18: 164-80.
Lloyd H., Sevillano Rios S., Marsden S.J. & Valdes-Velasquez A. 2012. Bird community composition across an Andean tree-line ecotone. Austral Ecology, 37(4): 470-478. DOI: 10.1111/j.1442-9993.2011.02308.x.
Lowery G.H. & Tallman D.A. 1976. A new genus and species of nine-primaried oscine of uncertain affinities from Peru. Auk, 93: 415-428. https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v093n03/p0415-p0428.pdf.
Luteyn J. 2002. Diversity, adaptation, and endemism in neotropical Ericaceae: Biogeographical patterns in the Vaccinieae. Botanical Review, 68: 55-87. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4354411.
Mabberley D.J. 1987. The Plant Book: A Portable Dictionary of the Higher Plants. Cambridge University Press: New York.
Maguina R., Amanzo J. & Huaman L. 2012. Dieta de murciélagos filostómidos del valle de Kosñipata, San Pedro, Cusco - Perú. Revista Peruana de Biología, 19(2): 159-166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15381/rpb.v19i2.835.
Martin T.E., Nightingale J., Baddams J., Monkhouse J., Kaban A., Sastranegara H., Mulyani Y., Blackburn G.A. & Simcox W. 2017. Variability in the Effectiveness of Two Ornithological Survey Methods between Tropical Forest Ecosystems. PLoS ONE 12(1): e0169786. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169786.
Merkord C.L. 2010. Seasonality and elevational migration in an Andean bird community. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Missouri-Columbia. USA.
Montgomery B., Kelly D. & Ladley J.J. 2001. Pollinator limitation of seed set in Fuchsia perscandens (Onagraceae) on Banks Peninsula, South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany, 39(4): 559-565. DOI: 10.1080/0028825X.2001.9512759.
Moynihan M. 1963. Inter-specific relations between some Andean birds. Ibis, 105(3): 327-339. DOI: 10.1111/j.1474-919X.1963.tb02511.x.
Muchhala N. & Jarrin-V. P. 2002. Flower visitation by bats in cloud forests of western Ecuador. Biotropica, 34(3): 387-395. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1646/0006-3606(2002)034[0387:FVBBIC]2.0.CO;2.
Mutke J., Jacobs R., Meyers K., Henning T. & Weigend M. 2014. Diversity patterns of selected Andean plant groups correspond to topography and habitat dynamics, not orogeny. Frontiers in Genetics, 5:351. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2014.00351.
Navarro L., Guitian P. & Ayensa G. 2008. Pollination ecology of Disterigma stereophyllum (Ericaceae) in south-western Colombia.
Plant Biology, 10: 512-518. DOI: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2008.00059.x.
Nevling N.I. 1971. Ecology of an elfin forest in Puerto Rico. Flowering cycle and an interpretation of its seasonality. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 52(4): 1-586.
Ollerton J., Alarcon R., Waser N.M., Price M.V., Watts S., Cranmer L., Hingston A., Peter C.I., & Rotenberry J. 2009. A global test of the pollination syndrome hypothesis. Annals of Botany, 103(9): 1471-1480. DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcp031.
Parker III T.A & O’Neill J.P. 1976. Introduction to bird-finding in Peru: Part II. The Carpish Pass region of the eastern Andes along the Central Highway. Birding, 8: 205-216.
Parker III T.A., Stotz D.F. & Fitzpatrick J.W. 1996. Ecological and distributional databases. In: Stotz D.F., Fitzpatrick J.W., Parker III T.A. & Moskovits D.K. (eds.). Neotropical birds: ecology and conservation. 113-436. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois.
Patterson B.D., Stotz D.F., Fitzpatrick J.W. & Pacheco V. 1998. Contrasting patterns of elevational zonation for birds and mammals in the Andes of southeastern Peru. Journal of Biogeography, 25(3): 593-607. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2699.1998.2530593.x.
Prance G.T. 1989. American tropical forests. In: Lieth, H. & Werger, M.J.A. (eds.) Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems. 99-132. Elsevier. Amsterdam.
Puhakka L., Salo M. & Saaksjarvi I.E. 2011. Bird Diversity, Birdwatching Tourism and Conservation in Peru: A Geographic Analysis. PLoS ONE, 6(11): e26786. DOI:10.1371 /journal. pone.0026786.
Ramirez O., Arana M., Bazan E., Ramirez A. & Cano A. 2007. Assemblages of two mammal and bird communities in two major ecological units in the high Andean plateau of southern Peru. Ecologia Aplicada, 6(1-2): 1-15. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.21704/rea.v6i1-2.350.
Ramirez-Villegas J., Cuesta F., Devenish C., Peralvo M., Jarvis A. & Arnillas C.A. 2014. Using species distributions models for designing conservation strategies of Tropical Andean biodiversity under climate change. Journal for Nature Conservation, 22(5): 391-404. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnc.2014.03.007.
Rapp J.M., Silman M.R., Clark J.S., Girardin C.A.J., Galiano D. & Tito R. 2012. Intra- and interspecific tree growth across a long altitudinal gradient in the Peruvian Andes. Ecology, 93(9): 2061-2072. DOI: 10.1890/11-1725.1.
Remsen J.V., Cadena C.D., Jaramillo A, Nores M., Pacheco J.F., Pérez-Emán J., Robbins M.B., Stiles F.G., Stotz D.F. & Zimmer K.J. 2016. A classification of the bird species of South America. American Ornithologists’ Union. http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.htm.
Renjifo L.M., Servat G.P., Goerck J.M., Loiselle B.A. & Blake J.G. 1997. Patterns of species composition and endemism in the northern Neotropics: a case for conservation of montane avifaunas. Ornithological Monographs, 48: 577-594. DOI: 10.2307/40157554.
Renner S.S. 1989a. A survey of reproductive-biology in Neotropical Melastomataceae and Memecylaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 76: 496-518. DOI: 10.2307/2399497.
Renner S.S. 1989b. Floral biological observations on Heliamphora tatei (Sarraceniaceae) and other plants from Cerro de la Neblina in Venezuela. Plant Systematics and Evolution, 163(1/2): 21-29. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23673955.
Renner S.S. 1998. Effects of habitat fragmentation on plant pollinator interactions in the tropics. In: Newbery, D.M., Prins H.H.T. & Brown D. (eds.). Dynamics of tropical communities. The 37th Symposium of the British Ecological Society. 339-360. Cambridge University.
Richards P.W. 1996. The Tropical Rainforest. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.
Robertson A., Kelly D., Ladley J. & Sparrow A. 1999. Effects of pollinator loss on endemic New Zealand mistletoes (Loranthaceae). Conservation Biology, 13(3): 499-508. DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.97471.x.
Rodríguez D.A. 2007. Los anuros de los bosques húmedos montanos de Carpish (Huánuco, Perú). Tesis para optar por el título de Biólogo. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Perú. http://cybertesis.unmsm.edu.pe/handle/cybertesis/915.
Rojas-Nossa S.V. 2013. Asociación entre el robo de néctar y las características florales en una comunidad montana de los Andes colombianos. Ecosistemas, 22(2): 107-112. DOI.: 10.7818/ECOS.2013.22-2.16.
Salinas I. 2005. Estudio taxonómico del Orden Scrophulariales (Magnoliopsida) en los bosques húmedos de Carpish (Departamento de Huánuco, Perú). Tesis para optar por el título de Biólogo. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Perú. http://cybertesis.unmsm.edu.pe/handle/cybertesis/1390.
Salinas L., Arana C. & Suni M. 2007. El néctar de especies de Puya como recurso para picaflores Altoandinos de Ancash, Perú. Revista Peruana de Biologia, 14(1): 129-134. http://www.scielo.org.pe/scielo.php?pid=S1727-99332007000200022&script=sci_arttext.
Schemske D.W. 1983. Limits to specialization and coevolution in plant-animal interactions.. In: Niteki, M.H. (Ed.). Coevolution. 67-109. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.
Schuchmann K.L. 1999. Hummingbirds. In: Del Hoyo J., Elliot A. & Sargatal J. (eds.). Handbook of the birds of the world. Vol. 5. Barn owls to Hummingbirds. 468-680. Lynx Editions, Barcelona.
Schulenberg T.S., Stotz D.F., Lane D.F., O’Neill J.P. & Parker III T.A. 2007. Birds of Peru. Princeton Field Guides. Princeton University Press.
Stadtmuller T. 1987. Cloud forest in the humid tropics. A bibliographic review. The United Nations University. Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza. Turrialba, Costa Rica.
Stattersfield A.J., Crosby M.J., Long A.J. & Wege D.C. 1998. Endemic Bird Areas of the World. BirdLife Conservation Series 7. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.
Stiles F.G. 1985. On the role of birds in the dynamics of Neotropical forests. In: Diamond A.W. & Lovejoy T.E. Conservation of Tropical Forest Birds. 49-59. ICBP Technical Publication 4.
Stiles G., Ayala A. & Girón M. 1992. Polinizacion de las flores de Brachyotum (Melastomataceae) por dos especies de Diglossa (Emberizidae). Caldasia, 17(1): 47-54.
Stotz D.F., Fitzpatrick J.W., Parker III T.A. & Moskovits D.K. 1996. Neotropical Birds: Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Sullivan B.L., Aycrigg J.L., Barry J.H., Bonney R.E., Bruns N., Cooper C.B., Damoulas T., Dhondt A.A., Dietterich T., Farnsworth A., Fink D., Fitzpatrick J.W., Fredericks T., Gerbracht J., Gomes C., Hochachka W.M., Iliff M.J., Lagoze C., La Sorte F.A., Merrifield M., Morris W., Phillips T.B., Reynolds M., Rodewald A.D., Rosenberg K.V., Trautmann N.M., Wiggins A., Winkler D.W., Wong W.-K., Wood C.L., Yu J. & Kelling S. 2014. The eBird enterprise: An integrated approach to development and application of citizen science. Biological Conservation, 169: 31-40. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2013.11.003.
Sylvester S., Sylvester M.D.P.V. & Kessler M. 2014. Inaccessible ledges as refuges for the natural vegetation of the high Andes. Journal of Vegetation Science, 25(5): 1-10. DOI: 10.1111/jvs.12176.
Tallman D. 1974. Colonization of a semi-isolated temperate cloud forest: preliminary interpretation of distributional patterns of birds in the Carpish region of the Department of Huánuco, Perú. Master of Science Thesis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Tejedor-Garavito N., Álvarez Dávila E., Arango Caro S., Araujo Murakami A., Baldeón S., Beltrán H., Blundo C., Boza Espinoza T.E., Fuentes Claros A. & Gaviria J. 2014. A regional red list of montane tree species of the tropical Andes: trees at the top of the world. Botanic Gardens Conservation International. Richmond, United Kingdom.
Terborgh J. 1971. Distribution on environmental gradients: Theory and a preliminary interpretation of distributional patterns in the avifauna of the Cordillera Vilcabamba, Peru. Ecology, 52: 23-40. DOI: 10.2307/1934735.
Terborgh J. 1977. Bird species-diversity on an Andean elevational gradient. Ecology, 58(5): 1007-1019. DOI: 10.2307/1936921.
Terborgh J. 1985. The role of ecotones in the distribution of Andean birds. Ecology, 66(4): 1237-1246. DOI: 10.2307/1939177.
Toloza-Moreno D.L., León-Camargo D.A. & Rosero-Lasprilla L. 2014. El ciclo anual de una comunidad de colibríes (Trochilidae) en bosques altoandinos intactos y paramizados en la Cordillera Oriental de Colombia. Ornitología Colombiana, 14: 28-47. http://asociacioncolombianadeornitologia.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/MS1011.pdf.
Torres-Mura J.C. & Hertel F. 2006. Southernmost record of Tennessee Warbler Vermivora peregrine in Chile. Cotinga, 26: 8-9.
Vaicenbacher L., Grim T. & Greeney H.F. 2014. The nest and eggs of Black-throated flowerpiercer Diglossa brunneiventris. Cotinga, 36: 56-57. http://neotropicalbirdclub.org/articles/36/Vaicenbacher.pdf.
Valqui T. 2004. Where to watch birds in Peru. Grafica Ñañez S.A. Lima-Peru.
Varassin I.G., Penneys D.S. & Michelangeli F.A. 2008. Comparative Anatomy and Morphology of Nectar-producing Melastomataceae. Annals of Botany, 102(6): 899-909. DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcn180.
Vivar S.E. 2006. Análisis de distribución altitudinal de mamíferos pequeños en el Parque Nacional Yanachaga-Chemillen, Pasco, Perú. Tesis para optar por el título de Magister en Zoología con mención en Sistematica y Evolucion. Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Facultad de Ciencias Biologicas. Unidad de Postgrado. Lima, Peru. URI: http://cybertesis.unmsm.edu.pe/handle/cybertesis/812.
Vuilleumier F. 1970. L´organisation sociale des bandes vagabondes d´oiseaux des Andes du Pérou central [The social organization of vagrant birds in the central Peruvian Andes]. Revue Suisse de Zoologie, 77: 209-235. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.part.75890.
Weberbauer A. 1945. El Mundo Vegetal de los Andes Peruanos. Ministerio de Agricultura, Lima. http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=48.
Weberling F. 1989. Morphology of flowers and inflorescences. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Wege D.J. & Long A.J. 1995. Key areas for threatened birds in the Neotropics. Birdlife Conservation Series No.5. Birdlife International.
Weinstein B.G., Tinoco B., Parra J.L., Brown L.M., McGuire J.A., Gary Stiles F. & Graham C.H. 2014. Taxonomic, Phylogenetic, and Trait Beta Diversity in South American Hummingbirds. American Naturalist, 184(2): 211-224. DOI: 10.1086/676991.
Willmer P. 2011. Pollination and Floral Ecology. Princeton University Press. USA.
Wolf L.L., Stiles F.G. & Hainsworth F.R. 1976. Ecological organization of a tropical, highland hummingbird community. Journal of Animal Ecology, 45(2): 349-379. DOI: 10.2307/3879.
Woods S. & Ramsay P.M. 2001. Variability in nectar supply: implications for high-altitude hummingbirds. In: Ramsay P.M. The ecology of Volcan Chiles: high-altitude ecosystems on the Ecuador-Colombia border. 209-217. Plymouth: Pebble and Shell.
Young B.E. 2007. Endemic species distributions on the east slope of the Andes in Peru and Bolivia. NatureServe. Arlington, Virginia, USA.
Young K.R. & León B. 2007. Tree-line changes along the Andes: implications of spatial patterns and dynamics. Philosophical Transactions Royal Society B, 362(1478): 263-272. DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2006.1986.
Zimmer J.T. 1930. Birds of the Marshall Field Peruvian Expedition, 1922-1923. Field Museum Natural History, Zoological Series, 17: 233-480. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/20932#page/11/mode/1up.
Zotz G., Mendieta-Leiva G. & Wagner K. 2014. Vascular epiphytes at the treeline - composition of species assemblages and population biology. Flora, 209: 385-390. DOI: 10.1016/j.flora.2014.06.001.
